As an overall business objective this might be reasonable. EXERCISE 9.6 A change in a program specication will normally be carried through into changes to the program design and then changed code. This might require a brainstorming session involving the whole project team or it might stem from an analysis of similar past projects. External to the project team but within the same organization For example, the project leader might need the assistance of the users to carry out systems testing. Over four weeks that should be 10 3 5 3 4 hours = 200 hours. They have now started to undertake maintenance of equipment of which they were not the original suppliers. People management Arnold, John, Cary Cooper and Ivan Robertson, Work Psychology: Understanding human behaviour in the workplace (4th edition), London, FT Prentice-Hall, 2004. The organization, as part of its monitoring and control policy, may have a measurement programme in place which dictates that certain statistics have to be collected at various stages of a project. Prototypes can be classied as throw-away or evolutionary. Biology - Non-Majors ISO/IEC TR 9126-4:2004 Software engineering: product quality Part 4 Quality in use metrics. EXERCISE 6.4 Referring to Figure 6.17, suppose that the duration for activity F is shortened to 8 weeks. We provide you Medical Books PDF Format Free Download and today, in this article, we are going to share with you the Complete Series of McGraw-Hill Books PDF for free using direct download links mentioned at the end of this article. With a large project you want to avoid reworking tasks previously thought to be completed. It is also interesting to note that recoverability has been clearly distinguished from security which describes the control of access to a system. The individual activity estimates of effort should be summed to get an overall bottom-up estimate which can be reconciled with the previous top-down estimate. 3. Innovative partnerships Companies sometimes come together to work collaboratively on new technologies in a pre-competitive phase. They are supported by an editor to write up the documentation drafted by the chief programmer, a program clerk to maintain the actual code, and a tester. 200 So ware Project Management 4. Cash flow forecasting As important as estimating the overall costs and benets of a project is producing a cash ow forecast which indicates when expenditure and income will take place (Figure 2.1). In addition to defect identication, a review meeting often provides learning opportunities to not only the author of a work product, but also the other participants of the review meeting. 3.2 Step 0: Select Project This is called Step 0 because in a way it is outside the main project planning process. High-risk activities A set of high-risk activities should have been identied as PERT and the sigpart of the initial risk proling exercise. 96 So ware Project Management 4. Belbin, Nigel, The Belbin Guide to Succeeding at Work, Cambridge, Belbin, 2008. You also want to encourage programmers to produce software components that other people can use: this might help the productivity of the organization but not that of the current project that they are working on! They can be caused either by defects in a process, as when software developers make mistakes in the logic of their software, or by information not passing clearly and accurately between development stages. If these tolerances are likely to be exceeded, then the Project Manager has a responsibility to produce an Exception Report for the Project Board. It seems to us to show that policies that avoid discrimination on the grounds of race, gender, age or irrelevant disabilities can be not just socially responsible but also a shrewd recruitment policy. Managing Contracts 10.1 Introduction 233 10.2 Types of Contract 234 226 233 Detailed Table of Contents xiii 10.3 Stages in Contract Placement 239 10.4 Typical Terms of a Contract 243 10.5 Contract Management 246 10.6 Acceptance 246 Conclusion 247 Further Exercises 247 11. A Systems study/design A project is carried out which examines the various existing IT applications in the two old organizations, analyses their functionality, and makes recommendations about how they are to be combined. At the level of individual developers, however, strong arguments exist for the formal weekly collection of information. Let us assume that only a single copy of a program module is maintained, and several developers are working on it. Some factors can be directly compared in terms of money the cost of hiring additional staff can be balanced against the costs of delaying the projects end date. who is meant by the words client and supplier. This is more so with programmes. Thus each time a conguration item is updated, a new revision gets formed. A new module might need to be designed and coded, test cases would need to be added to check that the new requirements had been successfully incorporated, and the integration testing would need to be repeated. Project termination process The important activities that are carried out as a part of the project termination review process are as follows: Project Survey The objective of the project survey activity is to collect various types of information pertaining to the project, without compromising the condentiality of the respondents. The change control facilities provided by SCCS and RCS include the ability to incorporate restrictions on the set of individuals who can create new versions, and facilities for checking components in and out (i.e., reserve and restore operations). Managing Contracts 247 Part or all of the payment to the supplier should depend on this acceptance testing. According to a report, about 31% of projects are cancelled during the development phase. The hardware and software engineers will then invariably have to alter the requirement and consequently the software as they nd inconsistencies, faults and missing functions. Thus software systems are particularly subject to change. In simple words, CMM is a reference model for appraising a software development organization into one of ve process maturity levels. We could decide that the damage inicted by some risks would be less than the costs of action that might reduce the probability of a risk happening. Like the producercustomer relationships described above, this could be reected in the PFD. For example, all module design documentation for any group of modules that interact with one another has to be reviewed by a group of colleagues before the coding can commence. The box labelled Actors refers to all the people involved in the development of the application in question. Maintenance or Support: As in Example 1.2 Chapter 2 2.1 Costs and benefits for the Brightmouth College payroll system Table C.1 lists costs and benets for the proposed Brightmouth HE College payroll system. 140 So ware Project Management TABLE 6.1 An example project specica on with es mated ac vity dura ons and precedence requirements Activity Duration (weeks) Precedents A Hardware selection 6 B System conguration 4 C Instal hardware 3 A D Data migration 4 B 3 B E Draft ofce procedures F Recruit staff 10 G User training 3 E, F H Instal and test system 2 C, D FIGURE 6.14 The precedence network for the example project Where an actual start date is known, the calculations may be carried out using actual dates. This set of identiable stages through which a product transits from inception to retirement form the life cycle of the product. 5.17 Capers Jones Estimating Rules of Thumb Capers Jones published a set of empirical rules in 1996 in the IEEE Computer journal. The rst step in producing the plan is to decide what activities need to be carried out and in what order they are to be done. The measures may be direct, where we can measure the quality directly, or indirect, where the thing being measured is not the quality itself but an indicator that the quality is present. Relevance Feedback Clustering Passage-based Retrieval N-grams Regression Analysis , Introduction Crossing the Language Barrier Cross-Language Retrieval strategies Cross, Language Utilities Efficiency - Inverted Index Query Processing Signature Files , Integrating Structured Data and Text: Relational Model Historical Progression Relational. For example, the incorporation of additional security measures would increase the amount of effort to deliver the system. Organizations may have different titles such as a feasibility study or a project justication for what we call the business case. Kent Beck advocates a maximum 40-hour working week as an extreme programming practice see Chapter 4. EXERCISE 13.11 Is it at all possible to develop highly reliable software using validation techniques alone? Thus, the deployment of the different functional specialists in different projects can be represented in a matrix (see Figure 12.3). 4. A meeting then discusses the work and a list of defects requiring rework is produced. Additional expense Building and exercising a prototype will incur additional expenses. So that projects may be compared, the list of risks must be the same for each project assessed. T2 and T4 can start when T1 is complete. Answer: They call in ICT consultants to advise them on their IT strategy. Appendix C Answer Pointers 353 The duration of activities that are to be carried out by users may also present problems, as this might depend upon their sense of priorities. Highlighting Specic Activity Attributes Using the different patterns and colour for different activity attributes, a project manager can highlight important aspects of the project. The methods learnt need, of course, to be actually applied. On the other hand, considering the present skill shortage, it would be very difcult for a functional organization to ll slots for some roles such as maintenance and testing as these might suffer from severe manpower turnover. SCCS and RCS do not handle binary les (i.e., executable les, documents, les containing diagrams, etc.). According to Jones, it would take about 320 lines of assembly code to implement one function point. (c) This is an embedded system that is safety-critical. Figure 9.3 shows an example of a report form, in this case requesting information about likely slippage of completion dates as well as estimates of completeness. Software Engineering by Ian Sommerville (9th edition). Monitoring and Control 9.1 Introduction 202 9.2 Creating the Framework 202 9.3 Collecting the Data 205 9.4 Review 208 9.5 Project Termination Review 211 9.6 Visualizing Progress 212 9.7 Cost Monitoring 215 9.8 Earned Value Analysis 216 9.9 Prioritizing Monitoring 221 9.10 Getting the Project Back to Target 222 9.11 Change Control 224 9.12 Software Conguration Management (SCM) Conclusion 231 Further Exercises 232 202 10. With a product-based approach to planning and control, as advocated by the PRINCE2 project management method, this focus on products is convenient. More than 400 Fundamental Concepts are provided for better understanding 5. ISO/IEC 15504-3:2004 Information technology: process assessment Part 3 Guidance on performing an assessment. The blueprint is supported by benet proles which estimate when the expected benets will be experienced following implementation of the enhanced capability. 7. Be careful about using other peoples historical productivity data as a basis for your estimates, especially if it comes from a different environment (this includes COCOMO). A summary of the features of these three tools is presented in Table B.1. In general, larger projects, up to a certain point, are more productive because 112 So ware Project Management of economies of scale. T5 can start when both T3 and T4 are complete. The supplier might suggest a very short warranty period of, say, 30 days. In software development a major activity is writing code. The activity description will normally be a brief activity name such as Test take-on module. 116 So ware Project Management EXERCISE 5.12 A new project has average novelty for the software supplier that is going to execute it and is thus given a nominal rating on this account for precedentedness. Parkinsons Law, John Murray, 1957. Unfortunately, the American researchers Couger and Zawacki found that information systems (IS) professionals seemed to have much weaker social needs than people in other professions. Some of these ideas are variations on the theme of inspection and clean-room development. Working in Teams 287 FURTHER EXERCISES 1. Microbiology An organization might have a problem and ask a specialist to recommend a solution. real-time systems were embedded. (b) For each element in the job holder prole that you have produced in (a) above, describe ways of nding out whether an applicant has met the requirement. This should be distinguished from a Post Implementation Review (PIR). With a major project this evaluation process can be time consuming and expensive. After a while, everyone knows what he or she needs to do and most of the problems that arise are familiar and the procedures to deal with them are well dened. These discussions could result in a Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) with each prospective supplier. At the end of week 4 she adds another three days to draft tender and issue tender. They need to create crises in order to justify the use of such tactics. Organizations sometimes get around this problem by giving bonuses to project team members at the end of a successful project, especially if staff have volunteered considerable unpaid overtime to get the project completed. Heavy taskoriented supervision would therefore not be appropriate. 204 So ware Project Management Responsibility The overall responsibility for ensuring satisfactory progress on a project is often the role of the project steering committee, project management board or, in PRINCE2, Project Board. Initial project planning is undertaken immediately after the feasibility study phase and before starting the requirements analysis and specication process. If my business wins some aspect of this game, then my competitors must lose: investors might lose money and employees their jobs. if new requirements amounting to 100 extra FPs were found, then the charge for this extra work would be $967 3 100, i.e. CONCLUSION In this chapter we have discussed the requirements for the continual monitoring of projects and the need for making progress visible. When a piece of work is completed, copies are distributed to co-workers who examine the work, noting defects. The Scrum process starts with a systems architecture and planning phase. Over the years, Barry Boehm and his co-workers have rened a family of cost estimation models of which the key one is COCOMO II. For large sized projects, a pure democratic organization tends to become chaotic. the use of techniques appropriate to the Note that here we are analysis and design of such systems would be considered; talking about writing the software tool, not will the system to be created be knowledge-based? This is sometimes referred to as the stage-gate model. 10.1 Introduction In the Brightmouth College scenario, the college management have decided to obtain their software externally. There would be a considerable information systems element to them. The use of review groups alone could be inefcient because they could be removing the same type of defect again and again rather than addressing, as the quality circle does, the task of stopping the defects at their source. However, this unication has resulted in making CMMI much more abstract than its predecessors such as CMM. It is constructed and tested quickly and inexpensively in order to test out assumptions. Experiments have shown that people will modify their personal judgements to conform to group norms, common attitudes developed by a group over time. Similarly, a number of specialized techniques and standard components are available to assist in the development of graphicsbased systems. The specic test case design strategies that would be deployed are also planned. SOFTWARE TESTING - LIMAYE - Google Books In Figure 7.4 some of the cells in the top right of the matrix have been zoned off by a tolerance line. Some systems may have elements of both where, for example, the stock control system also controls an automated warehouse. For example, in the case of logical internal les and external interface les, the boundaries shown in Table 5.3 are used to decide the complexity level. Candidates are free to choose any of the books that meet their needs and requirements perfectly. However, the term project team is sometimes used to refer to all the people working on a project. Suppose a project is budgeted to cost 150,000. There can be several reasons behind such a decision. External to both the project team and the organization External stakeholders may be customers (or users) who will benet from the system that the project implements. Identify which of the eight management responsibilities listed above Paul was responding to at different points during his day. Among other things, this book was one of the rst to introduce to a wider audience many of the ideas that have subsequently been codied in approaches such as DSDM. What are some of the best books and study materials that students can refer to during their Software Engineering examination? Risk transfer In this case the risk is transferred to another person or organization. When Brigette comes to consider the activity draft invitation to tender, she has to familiarize herself with the detailed institutional rules and procedures that govern this process. The greater the uncertainties at the beginning, the greater the risk that the project will be unsuccessful. The bottom-up part comes in adding up the calculated effort for each activity to get an overall estimate. Gerald Weinberg made the then revolutionary suggestion that programmers and programming team leaders should read each others programs. It was unavailable until 10.00 on two other days = 4 hours. The risk exposure would be 1% of 200,000, that is 2,000. The project parameters are re-estimated periodically incorporating new understanding and change in project parameters. Later surveys, however, have not found signicant differences between IS and other staff. Make a list of the types of activities that the analyst/ programmer should be capable of carrying out that can be used as the basis for a job specication. For example, in a supermarket the number of sales personnel would depend on the number of sales counters alone and the number of sales personnel therefore remains xed for years So ware E ort Estimation 119 together. In particular, we have seen the importance of the following: identifying all the resources needed; arranging activity starts to minimize variations in resource levels over the duration of the project; allocating resources to competing activities in a rational order of priority; taking care in allocating the right staff to critical activities. mies of scale and also expertise acquired Difculties in modifying requirements The need to change the scope of the doing similar jobs in requirements may become apparent during development this may cause the past. Paul has to phone both the human resources manager about getting a replacement and the user for whom the less urgent work is being done, explaining why it is likely to be delayed. There would be one person within the development area who would receive and process RFCs. Review Meeting In the review meeting the reviewers give their comments based on the logs they have prepared beforehand. She therefore decides to have another look at her activity plan. FIGURE 9.5 Review process model Planning Once the author of a work product is ready for submitting the work for review; the project manager nominates a moderator. Collection of Objective Information A critical aspect of the postmortem review is to collect various project metrics. 132 So ware Project Management FIGURE 6.3 USDP product breakdown structure based on artefacts iden ed in Jacobson, Booch and Rumbaugh (1999) it would be benecial to introduce additional levels structuring both products and activities. The Gantt chart gives a clear picture of when activities will actually take place and highlights which ones will be executed at the same time. Reviews aren't verified, but Google checks for and removes fake content when it's identified . To estimate the effort for application composition, the counting of object points is recommended by the developers of COCOMO II. This involves the kinds of task touched on in Chapter 9 on project control. Data collection Since a review meeting is a completely human endeavour, unless the data representing the results of the meetings is properly recorded, it can get lost. Humanities A new version of a word processing package might read the documents produced by previous versions and thus be able to replace them, but previous versions might not be able to read all documents created by the new version. The stakeholders may know the aims they wish to Introduction to So ware Project Management 5 FIGURE 1.2 The feasibility study/plan/execu on cycle Chapter 2 explores pursue, but not be sure about the means of achievement. One way of doing this is the trafc-light method. First, developers are brought in from the functional pool when needed. In the second place, where a feeder chain of activities joins the critical chain, the feeder buffer would be 50% of the comfort zones of activities B and E, that is 1 week. First, there is the question of money. Thus there are only six individual product types shown in the diagram. 104 So ware Project Management 5.6 Bottom-up Estimating With the bottom-up approach the estimator breaks the project into its component tasks. FIGURE 8.6 Amandas project scheduled to require three analyst/designers Resource Allocation 193 8.6 Counting the Cost The discussion so far has concentrated on trying to complete the project by the earliest completion date with the minimum number of staff. . We will discuss quality management issues in Chapter 13. In Chapter 7 we used the PERT technique to forecast a range of expected dates by which activities would be completed. The issue is identied as a fault but is treated as an off-specicationIt is decided that the application can be made operational with the error still in place. Although Brigette is aware that some additional programs might have to be written to deal with local requirements, the main software is to be obtained off the shelf and so estimating based on lines of code would clearly be inappropriate. Some of the reasons that have been put forward for prototyping follow. They reduce work for higher management by saving them from having to process a large number of small work requests. It is then only a short step to use off-shore staff who live and work in a different part of the world. 2.4 Evaluation of Individual Projects We will now look more closely at how the feasibility of an individual project can be evaluated. (a) Draw up an activity network and calculate the earliest nish for the following project: Activity Duration Depends on Resource type A 3 days B 1 day A SD C 2 days A SD D 4 days A SD E 3 days B SC F 3 days C SC G 6 days D SC H 3 days E,F,G SA SA SA = systems analyst; SD = systems designer; SC = software coder (b) Produce a table showing the number of specialists of each type needed on each day of the project if every activity was started as soon as possible. 5.8 Expert Judgement This is asking for an estimate of task effort from someone who is knowledgeable about either the application or the development environment. Once the work has been authorized, the Project Manager will then need to nd out how that work is progressing (CS2). The system cannot be properly operational until the last record has been transferred. EXAMPLE A cash receipt transaction in the IOE maintenance accounts subsystem accesses two entity types INVOICE and CASH-RECEIPT. Consistency between assessors is facilitated by associating each qualitative description with a range of values. Purpose of software configuration management There are several reasons why proper conguration management of the work products in a project is essential. These overall objectives can be expanded into more specic functional goals and quality goals. Leadership is generally taken to mean the ability to inuence others in a group to act in a particular way to achieve group goals. Part of the contract would specify such details as the time that the customer will have to conduct the tests, deliverables upon which the acceptance tests depend and the procedure for signing off the testing as completed. PRINCE2 caters for this through the idea of Stages. For example, one variant of a mathematical computation package might run on Unix-based machines, another on Microsoft Windows machines. The main life cycle phases are shown: FIGURE 4.5 Atern process model Selection of an Appropriate Project Approach 87 Feasibility/foundation. System specication Most system development methodologies usefully distinguish between the denition of the users requirements and the design which shows how those requirements are to be fullled. Four les are accessed: the STAFF le, the STUDENT le, the STUDENT-OPTION le and the TEACHING-ACTIVITY le. This will also detail the management of the implementation. People like Amanda and Brigette would want to know whether the effective and sensitive management of staff comes only from experience or whether expert advice can help. Peter Norton's Introduction to Computers Peter Norton 1995 Peter Norton is a pioneering software developer and author. 12.6 Dispersed and Virtual Teams We have seen how projects require a team of people to carry them out, and the members of this team could each be a specialist in a particular eld. (a) A developer needs clarication of what is meant by a particular term used in a specication. 4.4 Stages of a project where a prototype can be appropriate (a) A prototype could be useful as part of the feasibility study. FIGURE 3.4 A fragment of a Product Flow Diagram (PFD) for a so ware development task PFDs should not have links between products which loop back iteratively. With the exception of extremely large projects, it makes sense to allocate individual members of staff to activities as early as possible, as this can lead us to revise our estimate of their duration. Remember, however, that shortening a critical path often causes some other path, or paths, to become critical (see Section 6.14). For example, the conguration of a sample software product shown in Fig. Documenting amendments may take place alongside prototype testing so long as it starts at least one day later and nishes two days later. Chapter 13 discusses software quality characteristics. TABLE 5.1 Some project data e ort in work months (as percentage of total e ort in brackets) Project Design Coding wm (%) wm (%) a 3.9 (23) 5.3 (32) b 2.7 (12) 13.4 (59) Testing wm Total (%) wm 7.4 (44) 16.7 6.5 (26) 22.6 SLOC 6050 8363 (Contd) So ware E ort Estimation 99 (Contd) c 3.5 (11) 26.8 (83) 1.9 (6) 32.2 13334 d 0.8 (21) 2.4 (62) 0.7 (18) 3.9 5942 e 1.8 (10) 7.7 (44) 7.8 (45) 17.3 3315 f 19.0 (28) 29.7 (44) 19.0 (28) 67.7 38988 g 2.1 (21) 7.4 (74) 0.5 (5) 10.1 38614 h 1.3 (7) 12.7 (66) 5.3 (27) 19.3 12762 i 8.5 (14) 22.7 (38) 28.2 (47) 59.5 26500 The gures are taken from B. Figure 1.4 shows this aspect as iterations between monitoring and control, and the plan revision activities. Controllable work products include both controlled and pre-controlled work products. Control activities are initiated to minimize any signicant variation in the plan. As with a purely activity-based WBS, Not all of the prodhaving identied the activities we are then left with the task of sequencing them. The new system will allow a central coordinator to allocate jobs to engineers and the system to notify engineers of urgent jobs automatically via their mobile phones. If the super-project idea predominates then too much planning at the beginning plus a reluctance to change the scope of the programme may lead to inexibility. Step 2: Identify project infrastructure Within this step, activity 2.2 identies installation standards and procedures. To continue the analogy, an insurance company in the above example might be willing to reduce the premium you pay to have cover against re from 2,000 to 1,000 if you installed re alarms. dealing with batched computer output). .. The most important reason for prototyping is a need to learn about an area of uncertainty. Different options might need to be considered by the business and for this a same time/same place meeting might be expedient. However, a database containing the performance details of executed projects has been built up and periodically analysed so that the expert judgements can be progressively replaced by values derived from actual projects. Rule 5: Project Manpower Estimation The size of the software (in function points) divided by 150 predicts the approximate number of the personnel required for developing the application. Where an off-the-shelf package is concerned, the supplier often simply grants a licence for the customer to use the software.
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